Programmes & Policies on Environment – UGC NET – Geography – Solved PYQs

1. The concept of sustainable development rests on the following principles. (SEPT 2013)

(1) Inter-generation transferability
(2) Social justice
(3) Trans-frontier responsibility
(4) Inter-generation transferability, social justice and trans-frontier responsibility

Correct Answer: (4) Inter-generation transferability, social justice and trans-frontier responsibility

Explanation:

The concept of sustainable development is based on a comprehensive framework that seeks to balance economic growth, environmental protection, and social well-being. The most widely accepted definition was provided by the World Commission on Environment and Development in its 1987 report Our Common Future, which described sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

One of the key principles of sustainable development is inter-generational equity or inter-generation transferability. This principle emphasizes that natural resources and environmental assets should be managed in a manner that ensures their availability for future generations. Present generations act as custodians of environmental resources and have a responsibility to pass them on without significant degradation.

Another important principle is social justice, which focuses on fairness and equity within society. Sustainable development seeks to ensure that the benefits of economic growth and resource utilization are distributed equitably among different groups of people. It addresses issues such as poverty alleviation, access to education, healthcare, employment opportunities, and the fair distribution of environmental resources and risks.

The principle of trans-frontier responsibility recognizes that environmental problems often extend beyond political boundaries. Activities carried out in one country may affect the environment of neighboring countries through air pollution, water pollution, climate change, loss of biodiversity, and other transboundary impacts. This principle requires nations to cooperate and ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause environmental harm to other states or regions.

Modern sustainable development frameworks, including the Rio Declaration (1992) and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), incorporate these principles as fundamental components of environmental governance and global cooperation. The integration of inter-generational equity, social justice, and trans-frontier responsibility forms the foundation of sustainable development, making option (4) the correct answer.

2. Which one of the following ecosystem services is not a part of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report? (DEC 2013)

(1) Provisioning
(2) Promoting
(3) Supportive
(4) Regulating

Correct Answer: (2) Promoting

Explanation:

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was a major international initiative launched under the auspices of the United Nations to assess the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being. Published in 2005, the assessment introduced a widely accepted framework for classifying ecosystem services, which are the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment grouped ecosystem services into four major categories: Provisioning services, Regulating services, Cultural services, and Supporting services.

Provisioning services include tangible products obtained from ecosystems, such as food, freshwater, timber, fuelwood, fiber, medicinal resources, and genetic materials. These services directly support human survival and economic activities.

Regulating services refer to the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes. Examples include climate regulation, flood control, water purification, pollination, disease regulation, erosion control, and carbon sequestration. These services help maintain environmental stability and ecological balance.

Supporting services are fundamental ecological processes that sustain all other ecosystem services. They include nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production, decomposition, and habitat provision. Although their benefits are often indirect, they are essential for the functioning of ecosystems.

The fourth category, Cultural services, includes non-material benefits such as recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, spiritual enrichment, educational value, cultural identity, and tourism.

The term “Promoting services” is not recognized as one of the ecosystem service categories in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework. It does not appear among the four official classifications established by the MA.

The ecosystem services approach developed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment has significantly influenced environmental policy, biodiversity conservation, natural resource management, and sustainable development planning worldwide. Its classification system remains one of the most widely used frameworks for understanding the relationship between ecosystems and human well-being. Accordingly, Promoting is not a part of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ecosystem service categories, making option (2) the correct answer.

3. Which one of the following places in India was the first bird sanctuary set up? (DEC 2013)

(1) Vedanthangal
(2) Kudremukh
(3) Bannerghatta
(4) Keoladeo

Correct Answer: (1) Vedanthangal

Explanation:

Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary is recognized as the oldest and first established bird sanctuary in India. It is located in Tamil Nadu, approximately 75 kilometers southwest of Chennai. The sanctuary has a long history of bird protection that dates back to the eighteenth century when local communities recognized the ecological and agricultural benefits provided by migratory birds. The area received official protection during the British colonial period, making it one of the earliest examples of organized wildlife conservation in India.

The sanctuary is famous for its large congregation of migratory and resident water birds. Species such as herons, egrets, cormorants, spoonbills, ibises, pelicans, and painted storks visit the wetland during the breeding season. The shallow water bodies and abundant food resources create ideal nesting and feeding conditions for these birds.

Kudremukh is primarily known for its national park and biodiversity-rich landscapes in Karnataka. It is not India’s first bird sanctuary. Bannerghatta, located near Bengaluru, is famous for its biological park, zoo, safari, and wildlife conservation efforts rather than for being the first bird sanctuary. Keoladeo, officially known as Keoladeo National Park, is one of the world’s most renowned bird habitats and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but it was established much later than Vedanthangal.

Vedanthangal is often cited in environmental studies and conservation history because it demonstrates the importance of community-based conservation. Local villagers historically protected nesting birds because bird droppings enriched nearby agricultural fields, creating a mutually beneficial relationship between humans and wildlife. The sanctuary remains an important wetland ecosystem supporting avian biodiversity and serves as a significant site for ornithological research, conservation education, and migratory bird protection in India.

5. Montreal Protocol is related to (JUNE 2014)

(1) Global warming
(2) Ozone depletion
(3) Air pollution
(4) Water pollution

Correct Answer: (2) Ozone depletion

Explanation:

The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement specifically designed to address the problem of ozone depletion. It was adopted on 16 September 1987 in Montreal under the framework of the United Nations Environment Programme. The protocol came into force in 1989 and is widely regarded as one of the most successful international environmental treaties ever implemented.

The agreement was formulated in response to scientific evidence showing that certain human-made chemicals were damaging the stratospheric ozone layer, which protects life on Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The major ozone-depleting substances targeted by the protocol include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, and several other industrial chemicals.

The ozone layer is located primarily in the stratosphere and absorbs a significant portion of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. Depletion of this layer increases the amount of UV-B radiation reaching the Earth’s surface, leading to higher risks of skin cancer, cataracts, immune system suppression, reduced agricultural productivity, and damage to marine ecosystems.

The Montreal Protocol established legally binding commitments for countries to gradually reduce and eventually eliminate the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances. Subsequent amendments and adjustments strengthened these commitments and accelerated the phase-out schedules. Scientific assessments have shown that the ozone layer is recovering due to the successful implementation of the protocol.

Although some ozone-depleting substances are also greenhouse gases and have implications for climate change, the primary objective of the Montreal Protocol is the protection of the ozone layer rather than the direct mitigation of global warming. It is not specifically related to general air pollution or water pollution control.

The success of the Montreal Protocol is often cited as a landmark achievement in international environmental cooperation. Its implementation has significantly reduced the concentration of ozone-depleting substances in the atmosphere and contributed to the gradual recovery of the ozone layer, making option (2) Ozone depletion the correct answer.

6. The objective of Kyoto Protocol was to reduce greenhouse gas emission by (JUNE 2014)

(1) An average of 10 percent below 1995 level by the year 2010
(2) An average of 8 percent below 1998 level by the year 2012
(3) An average of 20 percent below 1997 level by the year 2009
(4) An average of 5 percent below 1990 level by the year 2012

Correct Answer: (4) An average of 5 percent below 1990 level by the year 2012

Explanation:

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement adopted in 1997 under the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Kyoto. It represented the first major global effort to establish legally binding targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from industrialized countries. The protocol came into force on 16 February 2005 after the required number of countries ratified it.

The primary objective of the Kyoto Protocol was to require developed nations, known as Annex I countries, to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions to an average of about 5.2 percent below 1990 levels during the first commitment period, which extended from 2008 to 2012. In many academic and examination contexts, this target is commonly expressed as 5 percent below 1990 levels by 2012, corresponding to option (4).

The protocol focused on reducing emissions of six major greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆). These gases contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and global climate change by trapping heat within the Earth’s atmosphere.

To help countries achieve their targets, the Kyoto Protocol introduced innovative market-based mechanisms such as Emissions Trading, Joint Implementation (JI), and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The CDM was particularly important for developing countries because it allowed developed nations to invest in emission-reduction projects in developing countries and earn carbon credits.

The Kyoto Protocol marked a significant milestone in international climate governance because it translated scientific concerns about global warming into legally binding commitments. It also laid the foundation for subsequent climate agreements, including the Paris Agreement (2015). The target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by an average of approximately 5 percent below 1990 levels by 2012 makes option (4) the correct answer.

7. To control pollution from ships and offshore platforms is taken care of by which of the following Acts / provisions by the Government of India? (DEC 2015)

(1) Major Port Trust Act, 1963
(2) Merchant Shipping Act, 1958
(3) Maritime Zone Act, 1976
(4) Indian Ports Act, 1908

Correct Answer: (2) Merchant Shipping Act, 1958

Explanation:

The Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 is the principal legislation in India that governs various aspects of merchant shipping, maritime safety, and the prevention of marine pollution from ships and offshore installations. The Act contains provisions relating to the control and management of pollution caused by vessels operating in Indian waters and aligns with several international maritime conventions aimed at protecting the marine environment.

Marine pollution from ships can occur through the discharge of oil, sewage, garbage, hazardous substances, ballast water, and other pollutants into oceans and coastal waters. Offshore platforms engaged in oil and gas exploration and production may also contribute to marine pollution if proper environmental safeguards are not maintained. The Merchant Shipping Act provides the legal framework for regulating such activities and ensuring compliance with pollution-control standards.

India has adopted many international maritime environmental obligations through amendments to the Merchant Shipping Act. These include provisions inspired by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), one of the most important global agreements for preventing marine pollution from ships. The Act empowers authorities to inspect vessels, enforce environmental standards, and take action against violations that may harm marine ecosystems.

The Major Port Trust Act, 1963 primarily deals with the administration and management of major ports in India. The Maritime Zones Act, 1976 defines India’s maritime boundaries and jurisdiction over territorial waters, the contiguous zone, the continental shelf, and the exclusive economic zone. The Indian Ports Act, 1908 focuses mainly on port administration, safety, and regulation of port activities. These Acts are not the primary legal instruments for controlling pollution from ships and offshore platforms.

Protection of the marine environment has become increasingly important because pollution from shipping activities can affect coastal ecosystems, fisheries, coral reefs, marine biodiversity, and human livelihoods. The Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 serves as the key legislative mechanism through which India regulates and controls pollution originating from ships and offshore installations, making option (2) the correct answer.

8. ‘Vadose water’ remains in between (JUNE 2015)

(1) Crust and mantle
(2) Mantle and core
(3) Ground surface and water table
(4) Ground surface and tropopause

Correct Answer: (3) Ground surface and water table

Explanation:

Vadose water refers to the water present in the vadose zone, also known as the zone of aeration or unsaturated zone, which lies between the ground surface and the water table. In this zone, the pore spaces within soil and rock contain both air and water, unlike the saturated zone below the water table where all pore spaces are completely filled with water.

Water enters the vadose zone mainly through infiltration of rainfall, snowmelt, irrigation water, and surface runoff. After entering the soil, this water moves downward under the influence of gravity and capillary forces. Part of it is retained by soil particles as soil moisture, part is absorbed by plant roots, and the remaining portion percolates downward to recharge groundwater reserves.

The water table marks the upper boundary of the zone of saturation, where all pores and fractures are filled with groundwater. The region above this level constitutes the vadose zone. The thickness of the vadose zone varies depending on topography, climate, geology, and groundwater conditions. In humid regions with shallow groundwater, the vadose zone may be relatively thin, whereas in arid regions it can extend to considerable depths.

Options involving the crust and mantle or the mantle and core refer to internal layers of the Earth and are unrelated to groundwater occurrence. Similarly, the space between the ground surface and tropopause includes the lower atmosphere and does not describe the location of vadose water.

The vadose zone plays a crucial role in the hydrological cycle because it regulates groundwater recharge, stores soil moisture for vegetation, filters contaminants, and influences the movement of water through the subsurface. Understanding vadose water is important in hydrogeology, groundwater management, soil science, irrigation studies, and environmental monitoring, particularly in assessing aquifer recharge and the transport of pollutants through soil and rock layers.

9. If Kyoto Protocol is for carbon dioxide, then Montreal Protocol is for (JULY 2016)

(1) Methane
(2) Ozone
(3) Carbon dioxide
(4) Chlorofluorocarbons

Correct Answer: (4) Chlorofluorocarbons

Explanation:

The Kyoto Protocol and the Montreal Protocol are two important international environmental agreements, but they address different environmental problems. The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997 under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), focuses on reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other gases responsible for global warming and climate change.

The Montreal Protocol, adopted in 1987, was established to protect the stratospheric ozone layer by controlling and phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). Among these substances, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were identified as the most significant contributors to ozone depletion. CFCs were widely used in refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosol sprays, foam production, and industrial cleaning processes.

When released into the atmosphere, CFC molecules gradually rise into the stratosphere, where ultraviolet radiation breaks them down and releases chlorine atoms. A single chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules through catalytic reactions. This process contributed to the formation of the ozone hole, particularly over Antarctica, and raised global concern about increased exposure to harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Although the Montreal Protocol was designed to protect the ozone layer, the substances directly targeted by the agreement were chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting chemicals, not ozone itself. This distinction is important because ozone is the atmospheric component being protected, whereas CFCs are the pollutants being regulated and eliminated.

The success of the Montreal Protocol is considered one of the greatest achievements in international environmental cooperation. The global phase-out of CFCs has significantly reduced ozone depletion and contributed to the gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Since the protocol specifically targets chlorofluorocarbons, option (4) is the correct answer.

10. The Environmental Protection Act in India was passed when the Government was headed by (JULY 2016)

(1) Late Mrs. Indira Gandhi
(2) Late Mr. V. P. Singh
(3) Late Mr. Lal Bahadur Shastri
(4) Late Mr. Rajiv Gandhi

Correct Answer: (4) Late Mr. Rajiv Gandhi

Explanation:

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 is one of the most comprehensive and significant environmental laws enacted in India. It was passed by the Parliament of India in 1986 when the Government was headed by Rajiv Gandhi. The Act came into force on 19 November 1986 and was enacted in response to growing environmental concerns and the need for a comprehensive legal framework for environmental protection.

A major factor behind the enactment of this legislation was the tragic Bhopal Gas Tragedy, which exposed serious deficiencies in environmental regulation and industrial safety. The disaster highlighted the need for stronger governmental powers to regulate industries, prevent pollution, and protect human health and the environment.

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 provides broad powers to the Central Government to coordinate environmental protection measures, establish environmental quality standards, regulate industrial activities, control pollution, and take action against environmental violations. Because of its wide scope, it is often described as an umbrella legislation that supplements earlier laws such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.

The Act empowers the government to set standards for emissions and discharges, regulate the handling of hazardous substances, inspect industrial facilities, issue directions for closure or regulation of industries, and impose penalties for environmental offences. Several important environmental rules and notifications, including those relating to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), hazardous waste management, coastal regulation, and biomedical waste management, have been framed under this Act.

The other options are not correct. Indira Gandhi passed away in 1984, before the Act was enacted. V. P. Singh became Prime Minister in 1989, several years after the Act was passed. Lal Bahadur Shastri served during the 1960s, long before environmental legislation of this nature was introduced.

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 remains the cornerstone of environmental governance in India and serves as the legal basis for numerous regulations aimed at pollution control, conservation of natural resources, environmental management, and sustainable development.